Rice (Oryza sativa and Oriza glaberrima)

Rice is the most widely consumed staple food of the world’s, especially in Asia. Rice is the seed of the Rice Plant a monocot plant that have two main species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) and Oriza glaberrima (African rice). This plant is origin to China (Pearl River valley) and spread to Southeast and South Asia since 1500 BC. Rice introduced to Europe through Western Asia. European colonization then bring it to Americas.

Rice cultivation is also one of the most important human civilizations, now rice cultivation become the second largest food plant cultivation after maize (corn), and rice is the most important carbohydrate source of worldwide humans. 

The importance of rice for mankind was illustrated from so much research projects and development of the quality and quantity of rice production, continues holds either by the various state agencies, universities and world research institutes such as the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI). IRRI is an international independent research and training organization with headquarters in Los Banos, Laguna in the Philippines. This organization has offices in sixteen countries.

Characteristic of the tree:

Rice or Paddy included in the tribe or Poaceae grains. Terna season, fibrous roots, stems very short. Similar structures formed from a series of rods that support each leaf midrib between the leaf midrib perfect and upright. Lancet-shaped leaves, light green to dark green, parallel veined leaves, covered with short hairs and sparse, composed of compound interest section, type branched panicles, flowers called florets units located on a single spikelet sitting on paniculate.

Seed and Reproduction:

Type of grain or fruit that cannot be distinguished caryopsis where fruits and seeds, nearly spherical to oval shapes, sizes 3mm to 15mm, covered by paleas and lemma which in everyday language is called chaff, the dominant structure of ordinary rice is kind endosperm.

Each rice flower has six anthers (anthers) and the stigma (stigma) forked shaped bottlebrush. Both of these sexual organs are generally sexually mature at the same time. Anthers sometimes out of the paleas and lemma if it has been ripe. In terms of reproduction, rice is self-pollinating plant, because 95% or more pollen to fertilize the same egg plant. Once fertilization occurs, the zygote and the fertilized polar nuclei divide immediately.

Form a zygote develops into an embryo and endosperm polar nuclei. At the end of development, most of the rice grains starchy endosperm section. For young plants, starch is used as a source of nutrition.

Genetics and breeding:

A set of rice genome consists of 12 chromosomes. Because rice is a diploid plant, each cell has 12 pairs of chromosomes of rice (except sex cells). Rice is a model organism in plant genetics study, was based for two reasons: its importance to humankind, and the relatively small size of the chromosomes, which is 1.6 ~ 2.3 × 108 base pairs (base pairs, bp). As a model plant, rice genome has been sequenced, as well as the human genome. Genetic improvement of rice has been going on since humans cultivate rice. The result of this action is the knowledge of a variety of local races, such as 'Rajalele' from Klaten or 'Pandanwangi' of Cianjur in Indonesia or 'Basmati Rice' from northern India.

New rice breeding systematically carried out since the establishment of IRRI in the Philippines as part of a world movement of agricultural modernization, dubbed as the Green Revolution. Since then comes the variety of rice cultivars with high yield to feed the world. The first two modern rice cultivars is 'IR5' and 'IR8'. Thousands of crosses then designed to produce cultivars with high yield potential and resistance to various pests and diseases of rice.

Since the 1970s have sought the development of hybrid rice, which has a higher yield potential. Due to the high cost of manufacture, this type cultivars are sold at higher prices than rice cultivars that are assembled with other methods.

In addition to improved yield potential, rice-breeding objectives also include the plants that are more resistant to a variety of plant pests and pressure (stress) a biotic (such as drought, salinity, and acid soils). Breeding aimed at improving the quality of rice was also performed, for examples by designing cultivars that contain carotene (pro vitamin A).

The presence of biotechnology and genetic engineering in the 1980s allows improvement of rice quality. A number of research teams in Switzerland developed transgenic rice that can produce toxins for pest-eating grain in the hope of lowering the use of pesticides.

IRRI, in collaboration with several other institutions, assemble "golden rice" (Golden Rice) which can result in provitamin A in rice, which is directed to the alleviation of vitamin A deficiency in developing countries. A team of Japanese researchers are also developing rice that produces cholera toxin to bacteria. Paddy rice produced expected this to be an alternative immunization cholera, especially in developing countries.

Genetic diversity :

Until now there are two species of mankind cultivated rice in bulk : Oryza sativa originating from Asia and O. glaberrima originating from West Africa .

In the early O. sativa is considered consists of two subspecies , indica and japonica ( synonym sinica ) . Japonica rice are generally long-lived , high but easy posture fall , lemmanya has a " tail " or " feather " ( awn ) , seeds tend to be rounded , and sticky rice . Indica rice , by contrast , shorter-lived , smaller stature , the lemma is not her " fur " or just short , and grains tend to be oval to oblong . Although both members of this subspecies can fertilize each other , is not a high percentage of success . Famous example of this is the result of crossing cultivars ' IR8 ' , which were selected from crosses japonica ( cultivar ' Deegeowoogen ' of Formosa ) and indica ( cultivar ' Map ' of Indonesia) . In addition to these two varieties , known javanica minor varieties which have the properties of the two main types above . Javanica varieties are only found on the island of Java.

Study with the help of molecular biological techniques have now shown that in addition to the two subspecies of O. sativa, indica and japonica, but there is also a minor subspecies be adaptive based on location. The subspecies mentioned are such as Upland rice from Bangladesh, royada (tidal swamp rice from Bangladesh), Ashina (tidal rice from India), and aromatic (fragrant rice from South Asia and Iran, including the famous basmati rice). This grouping is done using RFLP marker assisted with isozyme.

Genetic studies using SSR markers to the cell nucleus and two genomic loci on the chloroplast genome suggests that indica and japonica differentiation is steady, but it turns out japonica typically divided into three groups: temperate japonica ("japonica cool region" of China, Korea, and Japan), tropical japonica ("japonica tropical regions" of the archipelago), and aromatic. Subspecies aus a separate group.

Based on the evidence of the molecular evolution estimated indica and japonica groups separately since 440,000 years ago from an ancestral species populations of O. rufipogon. Rice domestication occurred in different places point to separate the two groups who had this. Based on archaeological evidence of rice began to be cultivated (domesticated) 10,000 to 5,000 years BC.

Continuous struggle of humankind to find the best rice varieties will never stop, along with increased consumption of these carbohydrates in the world that is inversely proportional to the area of agricultural land continues to decline.

There are about 723 metric tons worldwide rice production in the recent years with China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, and Vietnam in the five biggest rice producers of the world.

Scientific classification:

• Kingdom         : Plantae (Plants)
• Subkingdom    : Tracheobionta (Vascular Plants)
• Super Division: Spermatophyta (Produces seeds)
• Division          : Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)
• Class               : Liliopsida (dashed one / monocot)
• Sub Class       : Commelinidae
• Order              : Poales
• Family            : Poaceae (grasses tribe)
• Genus             : Oryza
• Species            : Oryza sativa,Oriza glaberrima

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Citrus aurantifolia ( Lemon or Key lime )

Lemon or Key Lime or Citrus aurantifolia, is a herbaceous plant which has many branches and twigs, approximately 0.5 to 3.5 m high. Included in the group of citrus plants, this plant originated from South East Asia, spread to the Middle East, North Africa, then to Spain and Andalusia. Before reaching the sub tropical areas in American countries such as Mexico, Florida and California.

Characteristic of the tree:

Woody trunk tenacious, thorny, and hard. Medium colored outer skin surface of dark gray and dull greenish. The leaves are compound, with elliptical base rounded, blunt tip, and the jagged edge. The leaves can reach 2.5 to 9 cm long and 2-5 cm wide. While bone pinnate leaves with winged stalks, green and 5-25 mm wide. 

Lime plant has a taproot. In common with types of citrus, the lemon tree also likes places that can get direct sunlight.

Type of flowers, can be a compound or single flowers that grow in axillary or at the end of the stem, flower diameter between 1,5 - 2,5 cm. Petals shaped like a bowl to share 4-5 with a diameter of 0.4 to 0.7 cm, and a beige colored pistils cylindrical stalk. Corolla numbered 4-5, oval or oblong with a long 0.7 to 1.25 cm wide and 0.25 to 0.5 cm white. Lime plant usually begins to bear fruit at the age of 2 1/2 years.

The Fruit: 

This kind of orange tasted very sour, almost no sweetness at all. Largest form of lime reached a maximum of only as big as a ping-pong ball, green when young, and turns yellow when ripe. When opened it will be very pronounced sour flavor. In terms of food or drink, the fruit is usually used water, almost no one eating it directly. However, orange juice can be part of a very refreshing drink. For tropical countries, fruit and its leaves are also used as a spice in cooking them.

Lime juice is the best material to eliminate the fishy odor coming from the egg. In addition, lemon juice is also beneficial because it contains a substance - the following substances:

Lime fruit contains elements of chemical compounds that are useful , for example : citric acid , amino acids ( tryptophan , lysine ) , essential oils ( citral , limonene , felandren , lemon camphor , kadinen , Gerani - lasetat , linali - lasetat , aktilaldehid , nonildehid ) , resin , glycosides , citric acid, fat , calcium , phosphorus , iron , sulfur, vitamin B1 and C. In addition , lemon also contains saponins and flavonoids compounds hesperidin ( hesperetin 7 - rutinosida ) , tangeretin , naringin , eriocitrin , eriocitrocide . Hesperidin useful for anti-inflammatory , antioxidant , and inhibits prostaglandin synthesis .

Hesperidin also inhibited azoxymethane (AOM)-induced colon carcinogenesis in the rabbit, and also inhibits N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxy-butyl) nitrosamine-induced urinary bladder carcinogenesis in rats (Chang, 2001). Lemon juice also contains 7% essential oil containing citral, limonene, fenchon, terpineol, bisabolene, and other terpenoids. Guo, et al. (2006) have observed that D-Limonene can inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis in HL-60 cells and K562 cells.

Cultivation:

Terms growth, ideally require 6-9 wet months (rainy season), rainfall 1000-2000 mm / yr evenly throughout the year, have enough water, especially in the month of July-August. Optimal temperature between 25-30 ° C and optimum humidity around 70-80%. Wind speed of more than 40-48% would destroy flowers and fruit. Optimum elevation between 1-1200 m asl. Orange juice is not like a place protected from sunlight. Latosol Andosol soil types and is perfect, the degree of acidity of the soil (soil pH) is 5.5-6.5. Optimum soil water at a depth of 150-200 cm below the soil surface. In the dry season, 150 cm and 50 cm in the rainy season. Lime plants like salt water containing approximately 10%.

Seeding: Seeding can be done by generative and vegetative:

A. Generative Method:

Seeds extracted from fruits by squeezing the fruit that has been cut. Dried beans in a place that is not exposed for 2-3 days until the mucus is lost. Then deployed in the nursery yag already prepared. However, breeding in this way will require a very long time to bear fruit, it needs about 5-6 years before the tree can bear fruit.

B. Vegetative Methods:

There are two methods applying on vegetative: transplanting or grafting. Grafting is a method of seed multiplication by shoot tip grafting and attachment of the eye patch. For both these ways need to be prepared root stock  were selected from the type of lime with strong roots and a broad, high environmental adaptability, drought resistant, resistant / tolerant to viral diseases, root rot and nematodes. Rootstock varieties commonly used is Japanese citroen, Rough lemon, Cleopatra, Troyer citrange Citrange and Carizzo. After the shoot tip grafting or attachment of the eye patch.

Time to start fruiting will be shorter than generative method, seed that made by grafting or transplanting will began to bear fruit on about 2 ½ year since planting time.

Planting: Lime seedlings can be planted in the rainy season or dry season when the water available for watering, but better to be planted early in the rainy season. Before planting, necessary to: (a) Reduction of excessive leaves and branches; (b) Reduction of the root; (c) Setting the root position lest there folded.

Scientific classification:

• Kingdom                : Plantae (Plants)
• Subkingdom           : Tracheobionta (Vascular Plants)
• Super Division       : Spermatophyta (Produces seeds)
• Division                 : Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)
• Class                      : Magnoliopsida (dashed two / dicots)
• Sub Class              : Rosidae
• Order                    : Sapindales
• Family                  : Rutaceae (citrus tribe)
• Genus                   : Citrus
• Species                  : Citrus aurantifolia

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Cynometra cauliflora (Nam-nam)

Cynometra cauliflora

Cynometra cauliflora (Caesalpiniaeeae), also known as Nam-nam came from eastern Malesia region and grows wild in the forests of Sulawesi Island. Nam-nam is naturally grown in lowland wet. However, this plant prefers habitats that distinction clear season (monsoon), although nam-nam liked the place open full sun intensity, but also somewhat tolerant to shade. This fruit crops, although quite tasty, now endangered. Because nam-nam is not a type of crops that cultivated intensively, this plant is more to a garden crops, forests or crops that made bonsai then put in a pot and become ornamental plants.

Characteristic of the tree:

Shrubs or small trees, reaching 3-15 m tall only. Gnarled trunk, the bark is smooth nodule, brown or gray. Titled rather tight, with a winding twigs zigzag. The wood is dense and pale, but not much use. The tree generally multiplied by seed, although it can be propagated by budding, approach grafting and other methods.

Compound leaves with a pair of leaves, stalks 2-8 mm. Leaflets oval to round eggs tilted asymmetrical, 5.5 to 16.5 x 1.5 to 5.5 cm, almost stem less, such as hides, hanging, lustrous dark green. Young leaves are white or light pink, hanging limp like a handkerchief.

Cynometra cauliflora

Bouquet of flowers form as small bunches protected by leaves lines that function as flowers guard, can be up 4-5 in the crowded cluster bumps that appear on the trunk, until close to the ground. Small flowers; petals pale pink or white, in a four shares, petals 2-4 mm long crown; crowns lanceolate, white, 5 strands, 3-4 mm long. Stamens unravel, 8-10 strands; pistil stalk about 5-6 mm.

Read also: Rose apple (Eugenia aquea or Syzygium aqueum)

Flowering and fruiting takes place throughout the year, but the main flowering period in Indonesia took place between the months of Agustlls until November. Flowers to bloom development progresses rapidly ie 2-3 days after bud emergence. In each flower stalk, flower buds will appear continuously after the flower buds before blooming perfect then fall.

The Fruits:

Nam-nam is the name of a type of fruit from the tribe of legumes (Leguminosae alias Fabaceae). With a single seed in each fruit. Thick fleshy pods, kidney-shaped, tapered tipped wrinkles, 3-9 x 2-6 x 1-4 cm, suspended in the stem, brown scaly when young, and greenish or yellowish when ripe. Tastes sour when young but turn out to be sour and sweet when ripe older. When the fruit ripe can be consumed directly in fresh.

Scientific classification:

• Kingdom         : Plantae (Plants)
• Subkingdom    : Tracheobionta (Vascular Plants)
• Super Division: Spermatophyta (Produces seeds)
• Division          : Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)
• Class               : Magnoliopsida (dashed two / dicots)
• Sub Class       : Rosidae
• Order             : Fabales
• Family            : Fabaceae (legumes tribe)
• Genus             : Cynometra
• Species            : L. cauliflora Cynometra

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Oriental persimmon (Diospyros kaki).

Physically this fruit is look like apple, unlike apple the outer skin of this fruit covered by a kind of flour like face powder. So, in some Southeast Asian countries this fruit sometimes named as the flirty fruit (because using face powder).

This fruit is native to China and others Far East Asia Countries like Japan. However, now spread already around South East Asia Countries. In South East Asia persimmon cultivation is still very rare, so what is available in the market is highly dependent on the outcome of the plants that grow from the fields of the population that generally grow wild. However, because this fruit is a seasonal fruit, we can see abundant amounts in the markets in countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia and other Southeast Asian countries.

The Japanese cultivar 'Hachiya' is widely grown. "Sharon fruit" (named originally after the Sharon plain in Israel) is an Israeli-bred cultivar of the D. kaki fruit. The cultivar is called 'Triumph'. As with all pollination-variant-astringent persimmons, the fruit are ripened off the tree by exposing them to carbon dioxide. The sharon fruit has no core, is seedless, particularly sweet, and can be eaten whole.

The American Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) is native to the eastern United States, its fruit is traditionally eaten in a special steamed pudding in the Midwest and sometimes its timber is used as a substitute for ebony (e.g. in instruments).

Characteristic of the tree:

Persimmon tree is small to medium, 15 m or less, dioecious but sometimes monoecious, trunked short and crooked, many branches, leaves and abort. Persimmon plant is an annual plant. Can grow well in the yard, the yard, the edge of the moor, the edge of the road, on the river bank, or both cultivated in monoculture and intercropping with other crops, generally persimmon trees tolerant of varieties of soil types. The recommended soil acidity is pH between 5.5 - 6.5.

Plants grown from seed, this tree has a taproot, whereas a plant from vegetative propagation does not have a taproot. Persimmon plant roots are not far from the ground, which is about 20 cm or more. Most of them have a setting away from the soil surface is easy to grow buds.

Persimmon root is brownish; it is also a part of instrumental in the propagation. Naturally, during the rainy season many roots buds grows, and in addition it is also a lot of growing new plants from the base of the persimmon plant roots, especially those that have mature. Such behavior provides opportunities for plant propagation of persimmon with root cuttings techniques, this technique also applied for propagation of breadfruit plants whose fruits have no seeds. 

Stem color is green when young but change to brownish dull after dark. Young stems, primarily the ones who come from the shoots can be used as plant propagation material by stem cuttings. Bark surface feels smooth when young and old feels a bit rough after.

Persimmon plant leaves have a sharp tip and base, simple, oval, up to 15 cm long and 10 cm wide, with a length of about 2 cm stalk. Persimmon leaf have boned formed like a fish spines.

Plain edge leaf shape, leaf surface is rather rough. Young leaves seem a little weak, old leaves stiff. While still in its infancy, leaves will light green or yellowish. Young leaves that decorate the plant make an impression as a new crop plants that are starting to grow. At the time, the leaves are grown plants look green or dark green, shiny, and plants look more solid. 

In the tropics, plant persimmon leaf color changes are not very noticeable, ie when young pale green or yellowish, after mature dark green, and then yellow as the plant leaves will fall, the leaves turn yellow persimmon evolve as shaded, then became orange and red.

In the subtropics, usually persimmon flowers have appeared in March, while in tropical regions such as Indonesia's new persimmon flowers appear in September and October. Sometimes, there are aftershocks flowers in early April. If it happened, so this is a superior trait or adaptation to the environment, then it deserves to be observed and used as a source of plant propagation that capable to fruit twice a year, especially in the areas concerned.

Persimmon flowers emerge from the armpit leaves that have been and are being grown from the twig. The persimmon flower formation takes place concurrently with the formation of new leaves. Flower formation mechanism is influenced by plant physiology.

At the time the leaves still look green or yellowish, in fact there has been emerging flower prospective, single, or sequential, in the armpit leaves on the twigs of plants. Thus on one branch there is only one possible flowers candidate, while at the other branches are many potential interest. On one branch there will probably rise one flower, two flowers and even was able to raise more than three flowers.

Persimmon flowers there are three kinds, namely the male flowers, female flowers and perfect flowers. Male flowers and female flowers usually emerge from different plants. Male flowering plant male and female flowering female plants. Sometimes, the male plants produce perfect flowers and female flowers. Male flowers are in groups of three flowers, in axillary panicles. Male flowers have 4 petals and 24 stamens that are on two rows.

Female flowers, single, have four separate leaves petals, petals colored grayish white or pale yellow, 8 stamens that are not fully developed, and will be a round fruit, stalk-related stigma and anthers. Usually on the branches are 1-5 female flowers, or even more. 

Perfect flower is a combination of both, which have pollen and pistil, so as to generate a typical fruit. The fruit is usually relatively large size, have a seed, has a stronger taste.

The Fruits and it’s Seed:

Many that are parthenocarpic persimmon, seedless fruit that is formed because no preparation, however, in fact, the persimmon crop cultivation is necessary to pollen for getting optimal production. On flower pollination occurs, will produce fruit that contains the seeds and will have a larger size and has a different flavor and texture. Therefore, many varieties are parthenocarpic persimmon; most do not have a persimmon seed.

Persimmon fruit, the base is covered by a sheath attached. Shape of each persimmon cultivars varied, from the shape of the ball, oval, up to the base of a rather flat, and rectangular. Persimmon peels thin, soft, shiny, yellow, orange, red, brownish red. Fruit flesh is yellow orange, dark brown, watery and soft. Before ripe persimmon taste bitter (astringent), but when fully ripe fruit, flesh became soft, and sweet, for those who do not astringent fruit, can be eaten straight, although not yet fully ripe.

Compared to apples, persimmons have higher levels of dietary fiber, sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron and manganese, but lower levels of copper and zinc. They also contain vitamin C and provitamin A beta-carotene (Nutrient table, right).

Persimmon fruits contain phytochemicals, such as catechin and gallocatechin, as well as compounds under preliminary research for potential anti-cancer activity, such as betulinic acid. Persimmon fruit can be consumed directly when it is really ripe, or made other preparations such as candied fruit and dried.

Scientific Classification:

• Kingdom: Plantae
• Division: Spermatophyta
• Subdivisio: Angiospermae
• Class: Magnoliopsida
• Subclasses: Dilleniidae
• Order: Ebenales
• Family: Ebenaceae
• Genus: Diospyros
• Species: Diospyros feet L.f.

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Arenga pinnata (Sugar Palm or Aren)

Sugar Palm

Arenga pinnata (Sugar Palm, Arenga Palm, Areng palm, Black-fiber palm, Gomuti Palm, Aren, Enau, Irok, and Kaong), is the most important palm after Coconut, especially when measured in economic scale. This plant is another tropical palm that native to tropical Asia, as a part or wild tropical rain forest plants from eastern of India to Indonesia and the Philippines.

Dutch identified this plant as arenpalm or zuikerpalm and the German named the same as zuckerpalme.

Sugar palm provides various economical value, Aren Palm Sugar that almost similar to Palm Sugar that produced by coconut palm is one of this plant gain, Aren Palm Sugar is little bit better that common palm sugar. This palm sugar is derived from sweet liquid produced from this tree that called sap (nira), clear colored somewhat murky. Nira is not durable, and taken through the tapping of young fruit stems before flowers bloom, the tapping done after the end of the stem pieces cut in a certain way. Tapping is usually done in the morning and afternoon, then immediately processed into sugar or palm wine. Palm sugar is obtained by heating the nira continuously so that the liquid thickens and turns brown colored.

Through fermentation, nira can produce to a kind of fermented alcoholic beverages, particularly in Indonesia and named as palm wine (tuak). This drink is a favorite alcoholic beverage in certain areas.

Arenga pinnata

Fruit sugar has a two or three seed core grains (endosperm) of white coated thin hard shell. Young fruit essence is still soft and somewhat translucent. Young fruit baked or boiled to remove the core, and then the seed cores soaked in limewater a few days to relieve the itching and poisonous sap. Alternatively, young fruit and steamed for three hours after the peel, core, and seed struck sprawl then soaked in water for 10-20 days. Core seeds that have been roasted traded in the market as Kolang-kaling. Moreover, fro like a mixture of ice, candied or cooked as compote.

The leaves of this tree are also useful as a roof, and are commonly used in the construction of traditional houses especially in Indonesia.

Like the leaves, the fibers of palm trees were twisted into rope. Although a bit stiff, rope fibers is quite strong, durable, and used in seawater. Fibers can also be used as a roofing material home, brush makers, and broom fibers. 

Characteristics of the tree:

Palm tree easy to grow, palm grows wild or planted, to a height of 1,400 m above sea level. Usually grow on the slopes or riverbanks.

Although the sap is very itchy, palm fruit that ripen much like animals. Luwak civet is known as one of the animals that like to eat palm fruit, and indirectly serves as animal seed dispersers’ palm. In Bangka Island, in the past, Chinese people put a trap under a palm tree that was fruiting, group to catch wild pigs that feast on the fallen palm fruits. 

Palm tree actually is a palm that has a big log and tall, can reach 25 m. Up to 65 cm in diameter, and the trunk firmly at the top covered by black fibers known as fibers. Fibers are actually part of the midrib of the leaf that surrounds the stem.

The leaves are pinnate compound, such as palm leaves, up to 5 m long with petiole up to 1.5 m. Children undulating ribbon-like leaves, up to 7 x 145 cm, dark green above and whitish because the wax layer on the bottom side.

Read Also: Oriental persimmon (Diospyros kaki).

Monoecious, separate male flowers from the female flowers in different cobs that appear in axillary panicles; ear length up to 2.5 m. Buni fruit rounded bullet shape, with a diameter of about 4 cm, three bears and three seeds, arranged in chain-like strands. Each bunch has 10 stems or more, and each stalk has about 50 grains of green fruit until brown. The fruit can not be eaten directly because the sap is very itchy.

Scientific Classification:

• Kingdom: Plantae
• Phylum: Magnoliophyta
• Class: Magnoliopsida
• Order: Sapindales
• Family: Anacardiaceae
• Genus: Mangifera
• Species: M.indica

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Coconut (Cocos nucifera)

A coconut tree (Cocos nucifera) is the sole member of the genus Cocos tribe Arecaceae (Palm family). This tree produces fruit that has same name: Coconut. This tree spread throughout tropical and sub tropical area, and the plant is believed to come from the Indian Ocean coast on the Asian side.

This plant is used almost all the parts by humans, so it is considered as a multipurpose plant, especially for coastal communities. Palm tree leaves used for various purposes, such as for firewood after the first dried. Old coconut trunks are made of building materials and furniture materials. Young coconuts enjoyed as fresh fruit, with natural sweet water, can also be used as part of a range of quality food dish. Her pieces are being widely used as a source of cooking oil, in Southeast Asia the old juice called coconut milk is an important ingredient in their traditional cuisine. 

Coconut flower, tapped to take water called sap. This juice is an ingredient for making coconut sugar (palm sugar). While the water of coconut fruit can be processed to be fermentation food named Nata de Coco. 

Coconut plants grow well at temperatures between 27-28 C. At temperatures below 20 C and above 30 C is not good coconut plant growth and fruit into small pieces.

Characteristic of the tree:

a. The trunks.

Singular palm tree trunks, rarely branched, round grayish green, and rough. Tall palm tree can vary depending on variety and growing conditions of the location of where. This tree usually grows upright, when grown on the coast or on the riverbanks, palm trees will be leaning towards the water, this is a natural way for the spread of the tree. Coconuts that fall will carry over the water so that it will spread to various parts according of the direction of the water or waves.

Colors of the inside of the stem are brown when young and turn into a dark brown-black when older. Old tree trunks are good enough to be used as building materials or furniture, if it has an old wooden palm trees will be very hard.

Tall coconut trees can reach almost 40 m, but once again it all depends on the varieties of palm trees and the condition of where the tree grew up.

b. The Leaves.

Palm leaves and invertebrates elongated parallel and grew faster during the rainy season. Light green when young and then changed to dark green when old. Strands of elongated leaves with leaves about 4-5 cm wide, has small leaves bones elongated form of sticks and colored yellow. Long leaves can reach 1 meter or more.

c. The Roots.

Unlike some other plants, the palm tree has neither a tap root nor hairs root, but has a fibrous root system, thick and woody, clustered to form tubers, adaptive on the sandy beach area. Jointed stems but if the old is not too visible, typical monocot type with vascular spread (not concentric), woody.

d. The flowers.

Flowers arranged in a series of compound protected by bractea; There are male and female flowers, monoecious, located at the base of the female flower bouquets, while the male flowers in distant parts of the base.

e. The fruit.

Coconut trees begin to produce fruit at the age of 3-4 years. After fertilized, the female flowers begin to grow into pieces approximately 3-4 weeks after mayang open. Fruit reaches maximum size at age 9-10 months.

Coconut fruit is a drupe, not a true nut. Like the other fruits, it has three layers: exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp. The exocarp and mesocarp form a "skin" of the coconut. Mesocarp is composed of fibers, called coir, which have many traditional and commercial uses. Shell has three germination pores (stoma) or "eye" is clearly visible on the outside surface once the husk is removed. 

Outer shell of coconuts can be colored green, yellow, ivory, and even red depending on variety, but everything will be whitish gray when really old and the outer skin becoming dry.

Traditionally which has the highest economic value is flesh, coconut meat is the main raw material for making coconut oil. Efforts to preservation coconut meat usually by drying and then called as copra (dried coconut).

But now began to find ways to take advantage of a variety of coconut juice drinks and high-value food ingredients, one of which is processing the coconut water into a kind of food called Nata de Coco.

Nutrients composition:

a. Coconut-inner edible solid part, raw (fresh kopra)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	354 kcal (1,480 kJ)
Carbohydrates	24.23g
- Sugars	6.23g
- Dietary fiber	9g
Fat	33.49
Protein	3.33 g
Water	47g
Thiamine (vit. B1)	0.066 mg	6%
Riboflavin (vit. B2)	0.02 mg	2%
Niacin (vit. B3)	0.54 mg	4%
Pantothenic acid (B5)	1.014 mg	20%
Vitamin B6	0.05 mg	4%
Vitamin C	3.3 mg	4%
Calcium	14 mg	1%
Iron	2.43 mg	19%
Magnesium	32 mg	9%
Phosphorus	113 mg	16%
Potassium	356 mg	8%
Zinc	1.1 mg	12%
Source: USDA database

b. Coconut Water

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	19 kcal (79 kJ)
Carbohydrates	3.71g
- Sugars	2.61g
- Dietary fiber	1.1g
Fat	0.2
Protein	0.72g
Water	95g
Thiamine (vit. B1)	0.03 mg	3%
Riboflavin (vit. B2)	0.057 mg	5%
Niacin (vit. B3)	0.08 mg	1%
Vitamin B6	0.032 mg	2%
Vitamin C	2.4 mg	3%
Calcium	24 mg	2%
Iron	0.29 mg	2%
Magnesium	25 mg	7%
Phosphorus	20 mg	3%
Potassium	250 mg	5%
Zinc	0.1 mg	1%

Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO):

Virgin coconut oil is coconut oil made from fresh coconut raw materials, processed with controlled heating or without heating at all, without chemicals and in addition, it was bleaching and hydrogenation process to produce pure oil.

Refining coconut oil as above resulted in the content of essential compounds that the human body needs to remain intact. Pure coconut oil with the main content of lauric acid has antibiotic properties, anti-bacterial and fungal.

Virgin Coconut Oil (VCO), is a modification of the process of making coconut oil to produce products with moisture content and free fatty acid levels are low, translucent color, smell nice, and has a long shelf life of more than 12 months.

When compared with ordinary coconut oil, or often referred to as cooking oil (coconut oil copra), virgin coconut oil has a better quality. Copra coconut oil will be brownish yellow, smells fragrant, and easy to rancidity, so the shelf does not last long (less than two months). From an economic perspective, virgin coconut oil has a higher selling price than copra coconut oil.

Philippines, Indonesia, India, Brazil and Sri Lanka are consecutive top five producers of coconuts in the world.

Scientific classification:

• Division: Spermatophyta
• Sub Division: Angiospermae
• Class: Monocotyledoneae
• Nation: Palmales
• Ethnicity: Palmae
• Genus: Cocos
• Species: Cocos nucifera

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Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)

Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) is a spice plants, popular all over the world. When you go to the supermarket, you may found coriander powder inside a bottle that powder comes from a small fruit that is dried and then crushed. Coriander form and shape is very similar to pepper, small seeds 1-2 mm in diameter.

Coriander is known to have functions as food and herbal medicine. As a seasoning spice, coriander fruit is widely used in Asia, Middle East, Africa, Latin America, and Europe. In the world of herbal medicine coriander, known as Fructus coriandri.

There are some versions regarding to the native of this plant, but majority of them noted that Coriander trees comes from South Europe and Caspian Sea.

Characteristic of the tree:

Coriander can be grown in lowland and upland to a height of 2,000 meters above sea level. The plants were harvested after only three months old, then dried, and the fruit is brownish separated from the plant. 

Coriander plant is included as seasonal shrubs, with a height of about one meter. The roots type is taproot, branching, and white. Woody stem is soft, grooved, and perforated with branching dichotom green. Stems measuring about 5-10 cm, the leaves are compound, pinnate, with whitish green leaf edge. 

Coriander flowers have small white to pale pink, the petals width between 5-6 mm, flowering did not occur simultaneously (indeterminate).

Besides its fruit that consumed as seasoning, coriander leaves are also used as a green vegetable.

The fruit:

Size of coriander fruit is similar to pepper fruit, the outer skin color is green when young and changing to be light brown when ripe. Coriander fruits (seeds) have a diameter of 3-5 mm. Coriander plants begin flowering around the age of a tree about 2 months and the fruit can be harvested three months after the flowers appear, or about 135 to 150 days after planting. When ripe, coriander seeds taste is spicy, and has a distinctive aroma to dishes.

Coriander contains a number of acidic compounds, linoleic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic acid, and ascorbic acid. The compounds were known to be effective in lowering cholesterol levels in the blood and may be able to reduce cholesterol deposits in the arteries and veins.

Cineole, one of the 11 components of the essential oil and linoleic acid contained in the coriander, has antirheumatic properties and anti-artriti. Thus, coriander can be used to cope with swelling caused by rheumatism and arthritis.

See nutrient composition details below:

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	95 kJ (23 kcal)
Carbohydrates	3.67 g
- Sugars	0.87
- Dietary fiber	2.8 g
Fat	0.52 g
Protein	2.13 g
Water	92.21 g
Vitamin A equiv.	337 μg	42%
- beta-carotene	3930 μg	36%
- lutein and zeaxanthin	865 μg
Thiamine (vit. B1)	0.067 mg	6%
Riboflavin (vit. B2)	0.162 mg	14%
Niacin (vit. B3)	1.114 mg	7%
Pantothenic acid (B5)	0.57 mg	11%
Vitamin B6	0.149 mg	11%
Folate (vit. B9)	62 μg	16%
Vitamin C	27 mg	33%
Vitamin E	2.5 mg	17%
Vitamin K	310 μg	295%
Calcium	67 mg	7%
Iron	1.77 mg	14%
Magnesium	26 mg	7%
Manganese	0.426 mg	20%
Phosphorus	48 mg	7%
Potassium	521 mg	11%
Sodium	46 mg	3%
Zinc	0.5 mg	5%
Source: USDA database

Scientific classification:

• Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
•       Subkingdom: Tracheobionta (Vascular Plants)
•           Super Division: Spermatophyta (Produces seeds)
•               Division: Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)
•                   Class: Magnoliopsida (dashed two / dicots)
•                       Sub Class: Rosidae
•                           Order: Apiales
•                               Family: Apiaceae
•                                   Genus: Coriandrum
•                                       Species: Coriandrum sativum

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Pepper (Piper nigrum)

Pepper (Piper nigrum) is a form of whole spices produced by the plant with the same name. Pepper is very important in components of world cuisine and is widely known as an important trade commodity in the "Old World.” In the past, the price is so high that it became one of the triggers of the Europeans to the exploration of East Asia for control of trade and, thus, began the history of the colonization of Africa, Asia, and America.

Piper nigrum is a type of vines, a part of the Piperaceae family. Pepper cultivation is intended to produce fruit, which is then dried and used as a spice. The fruit that knows, as black pepper or white pepper is a fresh fruit that measuring about 5 mm in diameter, dark red when fully ripe. Pepper powder is come from grinding dried pepper fruit.

Piper nigrum originated from India and widely cultivated there and in other tropical regions. Currently Vietnam is the largest producer and exporter in the world.

Characteristics of trees: 

Trees pepper, belonging to the Piper genus, which has about 600 to 2000 species. From the number of species, some of them has been cultivated such as Piper nigrum (pepper), Piper betle (betel), and Piper retrofractum (Java chili).

Pepper tree can reach up to 10m high; however, the vines will not be allowed to reach more than 5 m, when cultivated. Of course, this is a technical issue related to the care and harvesting.

Piper nigrum tree has two kind of roots:

a. Hanging Root ( Roots that above the ground/soil).

Hanging root is also called sticky or roots rock roots, the sticky roots use to cling or climb on its propagation media, so that the plant could metastasize to the top. Sticky roots only grow on the Orthotrop trunk, while on the fruit branches, the sticky roots will never grow.

b. The primary root.

This root is the root of the plant, as usual, there are roots in the soil, also called primary roots. Besides as an extension of the sticky root, these roots independtly also grows on the stem scars pieces. The roots will be able to penetrate the soil as deep as 12 m, root length can reach 2-4 m, but generally just reach between 30-60 cm depth only. This type of roots functionality is the same as in other plants, as the "legs" of plants, as a tool absorbing nutrients from the soil, etc.

Tolon is a main stem that growing climbing where other sticks such as plagiotrop and orthotrop branches will grow. The rod-shaped rather flat, dark gray, jointed, woody quickly, on this place the sticky roots grow. 

While in the bud, the rod bends. Each segment length can reach 7-12 cm at the end of segment will grow a leaf and a buds, their position is facing each other. 

When the pepper plant young ( 8 -12 months) will reach a height of 1.5 m with 1 segment whose numbers ± 20 pieces. After that, then branches grow consisting of primary branches, secondary, tertiary.

Orthotrop branches: These branches grow on the main stem. The branches are round, budded apart, and grow up. The branches have the same position with the primary trunk. Because they are, also have sticky roots, climbing, as well as having segments.

Plagiotrop branch (branch fruit): branches that grow from trunk orthotrop, which are numerous, these branches are short, rather small, and does not have sticky roots. At this branch, the flowers which later became the pepper fruit will grow.

The pepper plants unpaired single leafy, springy nature, and stemmed. Ovoid shape, but the bud tapered.

Upper parts of the leaves shiny dark green, while the under parts pale green and not shiny, stem length 2-4 cm, leaf length 12-18 cm, and 5-10 cm wide. The leaves on the upper trunk, not the same as the leaves on the bottom, at the top is longer, while the bottom is more rounded. Similarly, the forms of the leaves from the stems or branches are also not same as leaves on the vines and branches plagiotrop. The shapes of branch leaves are symmetrical and dark-colored, while the leaves of the plagiotrop branches or tendrils are asymmetrical and light-colored.

The leaves grow opposite each other with branches bud growth, while the growth of leaves on branches plagiotrop face to face with flower panicle growth. The leaf buds covered by petals. If the leaf expands, then fell off the petals or scales.

The parts that can bloom only plagiotrop branches or branches of fruit, the flowers grow in panicles of flowers, while the flower panicles grow on the segments of branches of fruit that face to face with leave. As another flower, the flower pepper is also composed of parts, among others:

a. Flower crown or base of the flower. This flowers canopy is green, or attached to the panicle. If fruit already grown, this canopy will become a basis of fruit, because the fruit is not stemmed.

b. Flower crown. Yellow-green and grow at the base of the flower. The shape is very small and delicate, being several days after pollination, the petals will wilt and eventually dry up.

c. Pistil. Pistil is the female tool, this section is a continuation of the ovary.

Pepper fruit has the following characteristics:

The Fruit:

Shape and color of the fruit: pepper fruit is round, hard seeds and soft-skinned fruit. Young fruit skin is green, while the old yellow. And when the fruit is ripe turns into red, slimy with a sweet taste. After dried then become black pepper.

In the process of growth, pepper fruit attached to the panicle, size 4-6 mm skin and seeds, while seeds large are 3-4 mm. Seed weight averaged 4.5 g.

Fruit Skin or pericarp consists of three layers, include:

a. Epicarp = outer skin,

b. Mesocarp = middle skin,

c. Endocarp = inner skin.

Seeds: Inside the skin, there are the seeds, which are the main products of the pepper tree; these seeds also have a layer of hard skin.

Black pepper and white pepper:

Black pepper and white pepper is actually the same, which is come from the same fruit of a plant called Piper nigrum. In the market, a black pepper and white pepper is solely due to the harvest treatment and after harvest processing.

White pepper is produced from the seeds of the pepper fruit that harvested when the fruit completely ripe or outer skin of the fruit is completely red. The skin pared until clean, and then dried. A dry peeled of clean seed ripe pepper is then named as white pepper. 

While the pepper fruit that harvested on half to ripe up to completely ripe then directly dry with all outer skin then named as black pepper. Therefore, to provide black pepper is simpler than to produce the white pepper. Western people generally prefer to choose black pepper than the white pepper; aroma of black pepper is stronger and spicier than the white pepper.

Scientific classification:

• Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
•       Subkingdom: Tracheobionta (Vascular Plants)
•           Super Division: Spermatophyta (Produces seeds)
•               Division: Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)
•                   Class: Magnoliopsida (dashed two / dicots)
•                       Sub Class: Magnoliidae
•                           Order: Piperales
•                               Family: Piperaceae
•                                   Genus: Piper
•                                       Species: Piper nigrum

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Clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum)

Clove tree or Cengkeh - Indonesia (Syzygium aromaticum) is native to Indonesia, specifically from the Moluccas Island. In fact, the main part that utilized and has most economic value of clove tree is the flowers of cloves not its fruit, but people often mistakenly assume its flower as the fruit of clove. 

Since the colonial era in medieval clove has become important horticultural merchandise, clove is one of the most important spice ingredients for the European community. At the time of the Dutch occupation of Indonesia, cloves is one of their essential commodities, in addition to nutmeg, sugar etc.

In addition to Indonesia's clove is also cultivated in Madagascar, Zanzibar, India, and Sri Lanka, the mentioned countries are also the main producers of clove of the world.

More than only utilized in food and culinary, cloves is also an important part of cigarette called cigarette kretek in Indonesia, the clove oil also utilized as aroma therapy ingredient, and in some of Asia countries clove also used as herbal medicines. 

Characteristic of the tree:

Clove tree is a perennial plant that can grow up to 10-20 m, has an oval-shaped leaves that bloom in its shoots. Stalk of fruit at first green, and red if the flowers are blooming. Cloves ( its flower actually ) will be harvested if it reaches a length of 1.5-2 cm. Round logs, rough surface of the stem, usually have branches filled with lots of branches. Direction trunk grows upright (erectus), including monopodial branches, because they can be distinguished between the main stem and branches, branches tend to grow towards the top.

Additionally clove tree can survive up to tens of years. The bark can be colored dark gray, brown to black. Hard wood trunk, but rarely utilized in the manufacture of household utensils or other tools.

Clove tree root is a taproot, which consists of the principal roots then branch out, form its taproot spear-shaped (fusiform), the roots grow into small branches. Strong roots that can last up to tens or even hundreds of years. Its roots are usually able to go deep enough into the ground.

The clove tree leaf excluding incomplete because the leaves have a petiole (petiolus), leaf blade (lamina), but does not have the leaf midrib (vagina), oval-shaped leaves and flowering at the edges. Including compound leaves Leaf structure (circumscriptio) is lancet (lanceolatus), end (apex) is tapered (acustus), base (base folii) is tapered (acuminatus), bone structure leaves (nervatio) is pinnate (penninervis), leaf edges (border) is average (integer), and the meat leaves (intervenium) is like paper, thin but tough enough (papyraceus). This leaf is green., as in the mains stalk there is more than one leaf. Clove leaf size: The width ranges from 2-3 cm, and leaf length of approximately 7.5 -12.5 cm. 

The flower and its fruits:

Clove leaf appears on the top branches (flos terminalis) with short stalks and bunches (real-stemmed flowers sitting on the flower stalk utma). Clove tree flowers including finite compound flower, since the end of the main stems are always covered by flowers. Flower consist of stems (pedicellus), mains stalk (peduncle), and the base of the flower (repectaculum). Clove is a single flower (unisexualis) so they can be divided into male flowers (flos masculus) and females (flos femineus), the basic of flower (repectaculum) it the supporter of the stamens and pistils (andoginofor).

Clove is included in a single symmetric that can only be divided by a plane of symmetry into 2 parts. Flower color will vary according to the age of the tree. When young clove purplish color, and then turned into a greenish yellow and when old become light red. Cloves have stalks green fruit when young, then when the old red and bloom. The fruit including pseudo fruit, because there are parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit.

Clove very rarely allowed growing up to be a fruits, clove flowers will be harvested before the flowers bloom. Old flower is a major commodity that is taken from the clove tree. The clove tree starting to produce at about age of five.

Scientific classification:

• Kingdom: Plantae (Plants)
•       Subkingdom: Tracheobionta (Vascular Plants)
•           Super Division: Spermatophyta (Produces seeds)
•               Division: Magnoliophyta (flowering plants)
•                   Class: Magnoliopsida (dashed two / dicots)
•                       Sub Class: Rosidae
•                           Order: Myrtales
•                               Family: Myrtaceae
•                                   Genus: Syzygium
•                                       Species: Syzygium aromaticum

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